Programming - Graphical User Interface Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Programming - Graphical User Interface - Essay Example The Graphical User Interface (GUI) is the most popular implementation of a Direct Manipulation Interfaces (DMIs) which presents users with a model of their information space and users can manipulate their information by direct action. Since GUI makes use of â€Å"visual objects to implement its model therefore the user can manipulate these objects via a mouse or another pointing device. The User Interface Management Systems (UIMS) are implemented mainly as GUIs so that the interface governs the entire system and not just a single application† (Daniel, Maurice & Thomas, para. 10). The â€Å"Graphical User Interface (GUI)† term came into existence because the first interactive user interfaces to computers were not graphical; they were text-and-keyboard oriented alpha-numeric characters and usually comprised of commands. With earlier interactive user interfaces, the computer had dull appearance and had very brief responses. We had to remember the computer commands too. The typical example of user-computer interface is the user interface of DOS operating system which is still used to from Windows operating system. The GUI utilizes the graphical objects to replace and/or supplement alpha-numeric user interfaces. In this way, graphical user interface enhances the end-user's and/or application programmer's productivity. Well- designed graphical user interface can free the user from learning complex command languages. On the other hand, many users find that they work more effectively with a command-driven interface, especially if they already know the command language (Hoffmann, para.6-8).

Descriptive Writing Essay Example for Free

Descriptive Writing Essay The much publicized meteor shower has finally arrived and is a much anticipated awaited aesthetic show. As I’m observing the dark night sky waiting for the gorgeous meteors to enter Earth’s atmosphere, I see the sensational stunning spectacular sparkling stars. While sitting on my porch in the small town of Malton, I hear a small owl chirping on my backyard tree and the soothing summer breeze gusting throughout the trees. I can hear the constant chatter of my neighbours as they eagerly wait for the show to begin. This being my first meteor shower observation, I feel really happy and believe that this is going to be an amazing show that I wouldn’t miss for the world. The meteor shower is starting and I’m full of enjoyment, gazing at the sky, I see meteors enter Earth’s atmosphere at a tremendous rate, the beautiful sky is lit up with different colours; orange, blue and a bit of purple. The bright strands of light are appealing to the human eye. While meteors are falling every 10-20 seconds, they hardly make a sound. My family comes onto the porch gawking at the meteors, both them and I are watching in enjoyment. My dad brings out his camera and takes numerous pictures of the beautiful sight. The meteor shower finishes, my family goes inside gossiping about the show and how they won’t see it again, I on the other half stay outside and glance at the Big and Little Dipper. The stars start to vanish and I go inside to reminisce with my family and neighbours the next da y. In conclusion, this is a moment that will be cherished in my memories for a lengthy period of time and I will surely share these breathtaking sights with my children.

Control The Incidence Of Different Diseases And Conditions Health Essay

Control The Incidence Of Different Diseases And Conditions Health Essay The relevant authorities responsible for maintaining public health such as local authorities, health trusts, government institutions, voluntary organizations etc are required to measure, monitor and control the incidence of different diseases and conditions which occur in a community. In epidemiology, incidence is a measure of a persons likelihood or risk of developing some new disease within a specified time period and is best expressed as a rate or a probability. Incidence is also a mathematical quantity that describes the occurrence of a disease Y in a population. It is the proportion of persons in the population, who newly develop the disease Y within a given time period (t): The measure of incidence is stated below: Incidence in population P  Ã‚  =  Ã‚  Ã‚   # who develop the disease Y in population p in a time t   # in population p The practice of disease monitoring is a complex subject and the method implemented in order to carry out this practice varies slightly according the nature of the disease and the extent of the geographical area in which the disease is to be monitored. Surveillance and monitoring are crucial to provide countries with the information needed about development of policies and programs for non-communicable diseases, and to support the assessment of these initiatives and monitor progress. The capacity to undertake surveillance for these purposes varies greatly around the world and was judged inadequate in many low-income and middle-income countries. Some disease monitoring programs are planned to occur in phases over an approximate period to allow for the collection, processing and assimilation of all of the sample material and its association with other recorded parameters.  Ã‚  Once results have been obtained and analyzed, the findings of the study will be published and will be made av ailable to all of the health and social care authorities and professionals of the area studied. The results of the disease monitoring projects and knowledge gained from the study will be  very helpful  with regards to future treatment protocols, therefore improving the health care in addition to aiding the understanding of the disease  thereby ultimately assisting in its prevention. The reports and findings arrived at while conducting the research is as follows: Preliminary outbreak assessments Qualitative risk assessments A surveillance framework, including a minimum set of indicators covering exposures and outcomes, is essential for policy development and assessment and for monitoring of trends in disease. Data must be collected, analyzed and used in a regular and systematic way. The interval between the episodes of data collection may vary depending on the measurements involved and the infrastructure available to conduct surveys. Surveillance involves commitment to data collection on an ongoing repeated basis, as well as the use of the data for public health policy. Four considerations guide the choice of risk factors for inclusion in surveillance activities: The significance of the risk factor for public health in terms of the nature and severity of the morbidity, disability and mortality of the NCDs associated with these risk factors. The cost of collecting valid data on a repeated basis; The availability and strength of the evidence that intervening on the factor will reduce non communicable diseases in the community. The ability to measure the risk factor burden uniformly in different settings to ensure comparability and to measure changes over time. The next most important aspect in maintaining public health after disease monitoring is conducted (and if a disease appears to be rampant) is the process of disease control. Control of a disease is the reduction in its incidence, prevalence, mortality and morbidity and elimination of a particular disease in a geographical area may be achieved as a result of intervention programs such as individual protection by the use of vaccines etc. Public Health applies a wide variety of tools for the prevention and control of infectious disease and their transmission by following a range of activities including the filtration and disinfection of community drinking water to environmental vector control, immunization programs etc. Another important program implemented by health and social care authorities in an effort to control the spread of disease is by organizing programs to promote self- protection, case findings and effective treatment of infections to stop their spread to other people (eg: HIV, Tuberculosis, malaria etc). Most importantly planning measures need to be in place. Health promotion is one of the most essential instruments of infectious disease control. It promotes community support of preventive measures. Means of controlling communicable diseases is mentioned below: Epidemiological monitoring Immunization Environmental measures Laboratory research and confirmation Immunization programs Epidemiology of Malaria in South Africa Incidence Rates- In 2006,  South Africa  reported 12,098 cases of  malaria  (incidence rate  25.9 per 100000 person-years) including 87 deaths.   Geographical Distribution- South Africa Vulnerable Groups- Young Children Non- Immune Pregnant Women Semi- Immune Pregnant Women People with HIV/AIDS International travelers from non-endemic areas Immigrants from endemic areas and their children Causes- Malaria is caused by  Plasmodium  parasites. The parasites are spread to people through the bites of infected  Anopheles  mosquitoes, called malaria vectors, which bite mainly between dusk and dawn. The intensity of transmission depends on factors related to the parasite, the vector, the human host, and the environment. Spread- The parasites that cause  malaria  are transmitted by a species of insects which are known as the female Anopheles mosquitoes. These parasites multiply within the red blood cells. Malaria spreads when the amount of this particular type of mosquito multiplies. Controls- Vector control is the primary public health intervention for reducing malaria transmission at the community level. It is the only intervention that can reduce malaria transmission from very high levels to close to zero. In high transmission areas, it can reduce child mortality rates and the prevalence of severe anemia. For individuals personal protection against mosquito bites represents the first line of defense for malaria prevention. Two forms of vector control are as follows: Insecticide treated mosquito nets Indoor spraying with residual insecticides South African Department of Health Malaria case statistics Provincial distribution of notified malaria cases, South Africa, 2000 Notified malaria cases by age group, South Africa, 2000-2002 Epidemiology of Cardio Vascular Disease in South Africa Incidence Rates- 165.3 and 101.2 per 100,000 South Africans of Indian descent and 5.3 per 100,000 among black African people. Geographical Distribution- South Africa Vulnerable Groups- Smokers, drinkers, drug addicts and drug abusers, obese and inactive individuals and individuals with high cholesterol who consume unhealthy food. Causes- Any disease that affects the normal functioning of blood vessels, arteries, veins and the heart are categorized under  cardiovascular diseases. They are also called as  heart diseases. The most common causes are smoking, alcohol and drugs, unhealthy diet and an inactive sedentary lifestyle. Control- Being active and eating the right foods will go a long way in preventing or controlling heat diseases. If you already have coronary heart disease it is never too late to adopt a healthy dietary change and a more balanced lifestyle. The only means of controlling this non communicable disease is by promoting and educating the public on transforming their unhealthy lifestyles into a healthier one. There are different approaches and strategies used in order to control the incidence of disease in a community. These approaches are surveillance, screening, immunization, education, legislation, improving social welfare and environmental controls. All these different approaches serve their purpose of being efficient tools for controlling the onset and spread of disease but they have to be used in combination with one another in order to be effective. For example, in the case of malaria epidemic in South Africa, an effective strategy to control the spread must begin with an immunization program directed at the vulnerable groups in the region. At the same time, environmental controls need to put in place in order to ensure that there is not a place left for the mosquitoes to breed freely. Thereafter disease surveillances and screenings must be carried out in order to track the patterns and identify the trends in order to develop more efficient prevention strategies. Government legisla ture too will help in this regard, if governments decide to grant more aid to local health institutions and authorities, it will be able to offer better facilities to the ill and infected and treat more patients whilst at the time, possessing more resources in order to vaccinate a broader range or people and provide them with the necessary insecticides. The personal health of the health and social care workers plays a paramount role in any community in the world. These professionals work at hospitals, nursing and personal  care  facilities, individual and family services etc and there main area of focus in on treating and caring for the ill. It is due to this reason that they need to be in a strong physical and mental state in order for these individuals to give their best to the people who are ill, as the sick need extra care and a lot of energy is required to fulfill their needs. Sick people have weak immunity systems and because these individuals work with the ill and injured on a day to day basis, it is very important that they too are very healthy so that they wont pass on any diseases to those people who can contract it very easily and make their condition worse. In order for the health professionals to be passionate about health and promoting health, they have to be in their best state of physical and mental health in ord er to make an impact. The collection of epidemiological data is very important as it helps to curb future epidemiological conditions. Epidemiology recognizes and measures the happenings of events in populations. Therefore modern epidemiology is able to become a science of prediction. It works by developing different models of the incidence of events, so when conditions occur that fit the developed models, events can be predicted and prevented. The practicing epidemiologist, therefore, attempts to describe the natural history of disease by determining why the disease originates and how it spreads in populations, therefore the practice of epidemiology is important because the concepts of epidemiology science is concerned with the circumstances under which people get sick and attempts to alter these circumstances so as to protect individuals from future illness. In addition to that, the inclusion of multiple data sources in the decision making process enables decision makers to make strong and valid decision s on matters pertaining to the countries health sector based on the findings presented in the epidemiological date. (Surveillance data along with social, demographic, geographic, behavioral, and clinical characteristics must all be included in the decision making process to paint a three dimensional picture of the epidemic). There are many priorities and approaches in the provision of health and social care services in the prevention, treatment, remedial care and palliative care for people with a disease or illness. The priorities of the health and social care professionals in this regard is to fulfill the needs of the patients while in their care and provide them with the necessary treatment required to nurse them back to good health. Disease prevention is the top priority in fighting diseases through immunization, good hygiene and following disease protocols when an epidemic suddenly emerges. The priorities in the treatment of disease are to first identify the illness and then assign the required treatment. The treatment approach will vary depending on the illness or injury but usually involves medicinal drugs and bed rest. If condition is serious, surgical procedures must be performed. However, the required treatment must be identified accurately and a top priority is to ensure the patient is comforta ble while in hospital taking treatment. The current lifestyle choices of the people will affect the future needs of Health and Social Care provision with regards to diet, exercise, substance use, work culture, relaxation etc. This is because in this day and age, many people eat unhealthy and dont exercise regularly. Also food contains lots of chemicals and artificial preservatives which is detrimental to the health. Work culture is also incredibly stressful and all these factors together can be detrimental to ones health in the long run. Therefore, in the future it will become necessary for the relevant authorities to anticipate the increase in non communicable diseases and develop new technologies and strategies in order to tackle them effectively. The responsibilities of the health and social care professionals of a region are numerous in the preservation of public health and wellbeing. Their role is imperative in any community. It is these individuals who are faced with the task of ensuring that the needs of the ill and injured are met. It is not an easy task.   Health care providers who have experience working on the front line are often placed in the unique position of educating, training, and preparing the environment for change in addition to influencing national health care policy. In addition to treating the sick, health care professionals are also faced with the task of educating the general public; training interns, work with key stakeholders on issues of advocacy, capacity development, and implementation of health policies at country level and their work to help achieve the goals of the government. It is important to promote a healthy lifestyle among a community and this could contribute positively to the prevention of many communicable and non- communicable diseases. This is due to the reason that many of the non communicable diseases prevalent today are due to lack of exercise, improper eating and abusing drugs and alcohol. These factors alone, contribute significantly to contracting chronic diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, hypertension etc. Therefore, by just making simple changes to ones lifestyle, one can avoid and prevent oneself from developing these diseases. In the case of communicable diseases, these too can be avoided by promoting healthy lifestyles because if one eats right and exercises regularly, one will develop a strong immunity that will protect against contracting various communicable diseases. Prevention is better than cure is a well heard of term. Undoubtedly, with regards to some medical conditions and diseases in our community, prevention is indeed better than cure. This is because in this day and age falling ill is very costly in countries that dont provide its citizens with free healthcare. Falling sick takes a toll on ones finances and can be very time consuming with hospitalization and repeated visits to the doctors. Also, an individual will have to be on continuous medication depending on the illness and this too will be costly and inconvenient. For example, if a person develops diabetes he will have to take insulin injections on a regular basis which will be very inconvenient. Also it may hinder ones ability of going to work and if the primary bread winner of a family falls sick, it can be very detrimental to the entire family. Also, the patient and his family will have to undergo a lot of hardship and it will effect their mental state of wellbeing. By simply eati ng right and exercising regularly, while staying away from intoxicants will enable a person to prevent from developing many chronic diseases. Also, he will feel healthier and happier and his immune system will be strong so his chances of developing communicable illnesses are also low.

The Next Great Wall Essay -- Encryption Technology Essays

The Next Great Wall The attacks of September 11, 2001 on the World Trade Center triggered the passing of the USA Patriot Act â€Å"to deter and punish terrorist acts in the United States and around the world, to enhance law enforcement investigatory tools, and for other purposes."1 It passed quickly and with little debate. Soon, encryption of information became a topic to address and efforts took place to allow the government backdoor access to anything encrypted by products developed within the United States. This generated much controversy and was opposed by many organizations. It did not take long before the supporters of these encryption bills backed down. The Chinese government, on the other hand, did not go through such a process. Restrictions on encryption technology imported to or developed within China have been put forth. Their attempts at such control contrast what the United States considers is a denial of our rights to privacy even when addressing national security. The U.S. has acknowledged the significance of supporting free encryption policies while China’s restrictions have shown they are even more limiting, unenforceable and morally wrong in how it affects its citizens as well as its international neighbors. U.S. Policies Addressing encryption technology over the last 5 years has been a challenge for establishing policy in the United States. Development of advanced encryption technology heightened towards the end of the 20th century and questions on its usage soon came into play. On February 23, 1999, the Security and Freedom Through Encryption (SAFE) Act was introduced â€Å"to affirm the rights of United States persons to use and sell encryption and to relax export controls on encryption."2 In addition, o... ...urnal. (back) Moore, Tim (2003), IEEE P802.11 Wireless LANs Draft 5.1, Retrieved February 7, 2004, from the World Wide Web: IEEE (MS Word Document). (back) CNET Asia Staff (2003), China Wi-Fi codes to be controlled by 11 firms, Retrieved January 25, 2004, from the World Wide Web: CNet News. (back) Freeman, Charles W. III (2004), Deputy Assistant USTR Feb. 5 Testimony, Retrieved February 7, 2004 from the World Wide Web: USInfo.State.Gov. (back) Shim, Richard (2003), China Implements new Wi-Fi security standard, Retrieved January 25, 2004 from the World Wide Web: CNet News. (back) Shim, Richard (2003), China Implements new Wi-Fi security standard, Retrieved January 25, 2004 from the World Wide Web: CNet News. (back) Gossett, Sherie (2002), e-Freedom fighters forge new weapon, Retrieved February 7, 2004 from the World Wide Web: World Net Daily. (back)

Educational Psychology Essay

REFLECTION ESSAY ON LEARNING EXPERIENCES for Educational Psychology Cecille Ann C. Pilapil, MS, MA, CIOP Name of Student: KO, KATHERINE Y. Section: 2PSY4 | | |I really want to be a teacher. Children are my passion and it has always been my biggest dream to help them, to impart my knowledge to them, | |and to be able to understand and relate to them. In this world that rapidly changes and grows, the role of a teacher proves very essential in | |every child’s process of learning. | | | |In the past, I admit that I used to take the â€Å"easy way out† in studying; I relied immensely on rote memorization to pass my subjects. I would | |spend hours and hours just memorizing different terms and concepts, without truly understanding what this or that means. It was not that I | |didn’t care about the courses I took, but only because I wanted to have high grades and I thought that just memorizing everything would make | |it easier, but soon came to understand that it simply did not. When it came to practical situations, I had a rather difficult time applying | |myself. I didn’t know how to put words into action, and I became quite anxious because if I wanted to be successful in the future, I had to | |learn how to adapt. If I wanted to be a teacher, first, I had to appreciate the process of learning and understanding. | | | |What I really loved about my Educ Psych class is that I was able to learn a lot through doing the things I enjoy, like watching films to help | |better understand different concepts, engaging in group discussions, interacting with my classmates, and just laughing and having fun with | |each other. As a class, we were taught the value of team work; we function as a single unit. This really brought me and my classmates closer | |to one another. Educ Psych had really helped us see why it is so important for us to know each other and why we should support and respect one| |another; all of these are necessary to achieve integrity. Our motto was â€Å"Do what you say, say what you do,† and this has helped us in so many | |ways, not only in school but also at home, and in our relationships with others. | | |This subject did not only give me insight on what it would be like to be a teacher, but I was also able to take a good glimpse on how much a | |teacher can change students’ lives, simply by listening to them, by encouraging them, by investing not only academic learning time but also | |quality time with them, and simply, by being their friend and caring for them. | | |Another important lesson for me is that being a good student is not at all about looking good in f ront of your professors and classmates, or | |receiving high grades. What really defines a good student is how she is able to value the knowledge she obtains inside the classroom and | |applies all those lessons learned in real life. This class has helped me mature in so many ways – in relating with my classmates, in relating | |with my professors, and in relating with myself. This class had pried open my mind and helped me learn how to combine my knowledge with | |action. | Educational Psychology Essay QUESTION 1 Education most definitely plays a key role in building the future of our nation but many learners are still lacking the fundamentals of a basic quality education. The South African Constitution Act was passed in 1996 and came into operation on 4 February 1997 [26] (Duma, 1995). Chapter 2 of this Act contains the Bill of Rights in which the State guarantees the protection of individual’s fundamental rights (Duma, 1995). Section 29 talks about the right to Education (Duma, 1995). This section recognizes that every person has a right to basic education and to equal access to educational institutions (Duma, 1995).It is clearly evident though that this has not taken place because black learners, especially in the rural areas are not receiving the necessary quality education that they are entitled to. Many schools in the rural areas still lack basic facilities such as running water, toilets, desks and electricity (Seroto, 2004). To worsen the situation some schools are bu ilt only of mud (Finnemore, 2009). Many township schools are in a serious state of dilapidation, partly due to theft of infrastructure and other forms of vandalism (Seroto, 2004).The shortage of classrooms, equipment and other teaching resources is evident in many schools today (Finnemore, 2009). Poor school management practices and dysfunctional teacher evaluation are contributory factors (Finnemore, 2009). The poor state of our school buildings and facilities is reflective of the current budgetary crisis (Tedla, 1995). This lack of access to resources and materials by children in the rural areas leads to inequalities within our education system. Children in urban areas and white schools have access to a better quality education than children in the rural black areas. Read also Memory – ForgettingThese inequalities today may be as a result of the Bantu education system. There has been inequality of access to education between the white and black schools in the past, and the evidence is brought forth when the political instability led to the disruptions of schools and centres for political indoctrination, leading to strikes and class boycotts, with the aim of demanding a change in the Black institutions of learning (Sedibe, 2011). According to teachers in Kwa-Mashu schools the core of all the problems facing schools today was the whole system of Bantu Education (Sedibe, 2011).This implies that what is presently happening in schools today is the result of years of oppressive education (Sedibe, 2011). Due to inadequate and unequal access of resources these schools in rural areas cannot function effectively (Sedibe, 2011). It is therefore the responsibility of the Department of Education to supply adequate resources and make them available to a ll schools equally, in order to enhance a culture of teaching and learning within schools (Sedibe, 2011). This is a very important issue that needs to be taken seriously if we are talking about investing in the future of our children.This means that rural areas need much more support from government than urban areas do in terms of education. They need to be allocated a fair share of the budget that will help remedy the bad conditions they are faced with. This can be achieved by providing them with all the necessary learning resources they need, which in turn will enable them to adequately equip themselves and thus guarantee them a bright future. Another issue that arises in our schools today is having teachers who are either unqualified or under-qualified.This was as a result of the closure of most mission schools and teacher training facilities in 1953 which forced all teacher training into racially separated government training colleges, geared to extending the mass base of Bantu Education (Douglas, 2005). Since other professions were closed to them on racial or economic grounds, many people of colour became teachers by default (Douglas, 2005). As a result, under-qualified, unqualified and even un-matriculated teachers were employed (Douglas, 2005).Training centres for our teachers today are a necessity if we desire to see pupils succeeding and achieving their goals. Teachers need to be equipped with the relevant skills and knowledge to carry out their roles appropriately and confidently. Government’s budget for education needs to set aside funds that will invest in training centres for teachers thus investing in the future and success of our learners, and in turn leading to a healthy, stable and developing nation. Another matter that arises is that of the apartheid system.During the apartheid era black people were discriminated against and this was clearly evident in the area of education. The implementation of Bantu education ensured that the level of education provided to Africans could be differentiated, with a small urban population obtaining education beyond the primary level, while the majority of the African migrant labour force received only minimal primary education (Mabokela, 2000). Still focusing on the apartheid era, systems and laws were put in place that made sure that black people were excluded from certain opportunities and benefits.For example, apprenticeship training programs designed for development of skills at workplaces were also for many years reserved solely for white persons (Finnemore, 2009). Overcoming the long shadow of apartheid education is proving a major hurdle to the development of our nation. In terms of government’s budget for education, has there been a failure to equally allocate resources? Government needs to revisit this budget to make sure that it is being fairly and equally distributed, so that every learner can have the opportunity to benefit from it.Government’s spending on education has declined over the years (Tedla, 1995). Although many students are found in primary schools, and although this level of education is less expensive than secondary or tertiary levels, the financial support for it has steadily decreased (Tedla, 1995). Formerly White education was financed at 185 percent of the national average whereas the education departments of the former non-independent homelands were funded at 74 percent of the national average and the former ‘independent’ homelands at 67 percent (Seroto, 2004).This clearly shows funding disparities with regard to the provision of education for White learners and for Black learners perpetuated by the former apartheid government (Seroto, 2004). This apartheid system has had an effect on our education system today. The South African budget also suffers from the effects of apartheid. The economy is still reeling from the economic downfalls of apartheid and there is a major problem in maintaining current l evels of spending with the solution being unclear (Education in South Africa, 2005).All the factors discussed above play a critical role in the development of our education system today and unless we make a conscious decision to take the necessary steps to amend these problems, the future of our children cannot be guaranteed. QUESTION 2 In the article provided it is very clear that the conditions for learning are not conducive at all for the students to learn. These conditions instead can lead to the demotivation and discouragement of the students.Some of the negative learning conditions they are exposed to are: a tremendous shortage of learning facilities, resources and materials like desks, chairs, picture books and workbooks. The classroom floors are described by the teacher as a dirt road. This is definitely detrimental to the health and well-being of the learners. The classroom walls are described as raw and bare. We know that children need a stimulating and motivating environm ent to grow and without things like paintings, drawings and pictures on the walls it becomes very difficult for them to develop.All these conditions that have been described above stand as a barrier to the ability of students to learn. These conditions could lead to the students’ failure to learn anything, not because they are incapable or incompetent but because of the poor and bad learning conditions they have been exposed to, leading to their failure to cope. For these students who attend school in these conditions, little can be learned, surely, on a day under a leaky roof or with no roof at all (Tedla, 1995). These problems can and do discourage pupil attendance (Tedla, 1995).The Role of the Psychologist The role of the psychologist in such a context would be, first and foremost to understand the nature of each child within this context so that they may be able to assist them. For example, different children will behave and react differently to different situations. Some children may be resilient to such conditions and view them as opportunities to learn, instead of viewing them as barriers to learning. In such circumstances these children would do whatever it takes to work hard and achieve their goals no matter the circumstances.Other children might end up discouraged, demotivated, depressed, frustrated, stressed and unhappy. It would be the responsibility of the psychologist to find out about the nature of each child by conducting assessments. Assessment of children requires special adaptation of assessment procedures and particular interview techniques (Holford et al. , 2001). These assessments could include one-on-one sessions with the child. In addition to interviewing children, using developmentally appropriate language, drawing techniques and imaginative play can elicit valuable nformation (Holford et al. , 2001). This could also include observing each child within the classroom setting and seeing how they respond and react within that class room environment. For any comprehensive assessment of a child, direct observation of activity level, motor skills, verbal expression, and vocabulary are also essential (Holford et al. , 2001). Any kind of assessment used by the psychologist should not be complex but rather simplified so that learners are able to understand.Questions must be simple and appropriate for the child’s developmental level (Holford et al. , 2001). This in turn will ensure that there is communication between the learner and the psychologist. It will also help to ensure that learners benefit from these sessions. It is also very important that the psychologist understands how the child views the circumstances in his or her environment. Therefore the primary goal of the interviewing technique is to gain the child’s own perspective (Holford et al. , 2001).Teachers can also collaborate with the psychologists to help the learners. This is what is referred to as unified collaboration. It can often be useful for the psychologist to speak to the child’s teacher(s) as their reports can give valuable supplementary information (Holford et al. , 2001). A standard questionnaire could be given to the teacher to provide information about the child’s learning skills, ability to cope in a group situation, peer relationships, and relationships with adults in authority (Holford et al. , 2001). Possible Interventions by the PsychologistA key component of Bronfenbrenner’s model (the ecological systems theory) is the understanding that children are also active participants in their own development, and the environment therefore does not simply impact on the child (Swart & Pettipher, 2005). Children’s perceptions of their context are central to understanding how they interact with their environments (Swart & Pettipher, 2005). The way they perceive their circumstances influences the way they respond to their human and physical contexts (Swart & Pettipher, 2005).The mic rosystem refers to the activities or interactions in the child’s immediate surroundings (Swart & Pettipher, 2005). The mesosystem refers to connections or interrelationships among microsystems of homes, schools, and peer groups (Swart & Pettipher,). The psychologist could use both the microsystem and mesosystem in coming up with different kinds of interventions. For example, the psychologist could include systemic interventions with parents, teachers or the school itself (Landsberg, 2011).A systemic intervention with parents would involve finding out more about the child in the home environment, how the child interacts with them as parents, how the child interacts with his or her peers and any other difficulties or problems the child may be experiencing at home. Another intervention could involve parent and teacher workshops (Landsberg, 2011). Parents and teachers could come together to discuss the progress of the children, the problems they are experiencing at home and at sc hool and how parents can support teachers and vice versa, in assisting the children to overcome any obstacles or barriers they may be facing.They could also assist the children in making their learning experience a more pleasurable and successful one. The school itself can also be involved in this intervention, by, for example, designing programs and projects (Landsberg, 2011). This could help students in developing their capacity to learn and work together in groups, as well as developing their communication skills within groups. It could also teach them how to love and support one another in such an environment.These interventions used by psychologists should not only focus on the children’s weaknesses but should also focus on their strengths that can be used to compensate for their areas of weakness (Landsberg, 2011). These interventions should provide the learners with immediate benefits that can be realized, including the identification of social or emotional difficultie s, considerations and coping strategies to enhance learning and methods for increasing motivation and interest in affected areas as required (Landsberg, 2011). QUESTION3In this article, owning a toy is a dream rather than a reality for these children. They desire to have toys but because their parents are unemployed and the school cannot afford to provide them with these toys this is not a reality for them. Having toys should not be seen as a luxury but rather as a necessity for children of this age to grow and develop appropriately. They desire to have desks, chairs, picture books and many more resources. For them without these basic resources they feel they will not be able to realize their goals.They also desire playgrounds, see-saws, pencils, toys and most importantly food. These desires are the kind that any child of school going age would have. Food is one of the very important and basic necessities for anyone to survive, no matter the age. If these children cannot even afford to get a decent meal it becomes very difficult for them to learn anything at school. They also desire water and toilets, which once again are basic necessities of life that one cannot live without. It is a sad fact that at this young age, these children have been denied the opportunity to the basic necessities of life.Pupils dream of computers but they are yet to see one. In this fast-paced technological and global environment, every child should be exposed to a computer and given the basic skills of how to operate one. These children need to be given the opportunity to realize their goals and aspirations in life. At their young age it is difficult to expect them to understand what is going on. Therefore teachers, the government, the education department and parents all have a big role to play in the lives of these children in order to make sure that they realize and achieve their dreams.Material conditions definitely need to be improved to enhance the learning of these children bu t they also need a strong support system from both parents and teachers to help them through their learning experience. One needs to get into the child’s world and see things from their perspective (Holford et al. , 2001). In this way they will be able to understand the children and what they are experiencing and thus be able to assist them. It is the responsibility of government to improve the conditions of these impoverished schools so that children can be able to learn and be productive in their learning experience.They also need to provide more learning resources for the children so that they can enhance their ability to learn. Basic facilities such as running water, toilets, desks, chairs and electricity should be made available and easily accessible for these children. Parents within these communities also need assistance in finding employment or loans to start small businesses so that they too can be able to support their children and contribute to the schools they att end. The risk of children falling sick because they do not have access to clean and healthy water must be reduced.This problem stands as a barrier to achieving their goals and dreams. It is the responsibility of our society, government, parents and teachers to work together in making sure that children overcome these barriers to learning by adequately equipping them in every possible way to realize their goals. All these factors that have been mentioned greatly contribute to the emancipation of these children and unless we all work together to see that these children are emancipated, their future cannot be secured. QUESTION 4A detailed ideal education system within a multidisciplinary context that can improve the educational outcomes of children of school going age would be one that firstly: offers quality education for all learners. This means that all learners should have equal access to adequate facilities and resources (for example, clean running water, toilets, desks, chairs an d electricity) within their school environment regardless of their race (whether they are black or white), regardless of where they live (in the rural or urban areas) and regardless of whether they are disabled or disadvantaged.Secondly, this system should accommodate the different learning styles of different learners within schools. Some learners may need visual material to support them in their learning experience; some learners may need learning material to be broken up into smaller amounts; other learners may want to see the whole picture before the material is broken up; some learners may prefer studying with background music; others may prefer studying in a quiet place (Swart & Pettipher, 2005 ). This system should make provision for all these different learning styles of learners.This system also needs to move away from the apartheid system that accommodated English more than anything. Schools now need to embrace the diversity of cultures and languages within our society by finding a way to accommodate each and every learner, no matter their background or culture. At the same time they need to help learners realize the continued importance of developing their English language skills. This can be done through the use of appropriate reading materials, writing skills and appropriate teaching methodology. Thirdly, this system should be one that accommodates the diversity of learners within our society and community.In this case, teachers need to be given more time to plan their teaching activities to include a diversity of learners (Landsberg, 2011). Not only do teachers need to be given more time to plan their teaching activities but they also need helpers or additional teacher assistants (also called classroom assistants) who can support them in teaching a diversity of learners as well as support from specialized people for advice and guidance (Landsberg, 2011). Teachers also need administrative support as well as adequate learning support materials and assistive devices appropriate for the needs of learners with disabilities (Landsberg, 2011).This system can only be successful in improving the educational outcomes of children of school going age if teachers are given all the support they need to deal with the different kinds of learners within the different schools. Government also needs to invest in teachers by sending them to training centers that will adequately equip them with the required skills and knowledge necessary for them to cope in their diverse school environments. REFERENCE LIST Douglas, J. (2005). Transformation of the South African schooling system. Teacher Professionalism and Education Transformation.Braamfontein: The Centre for Education Policy Development. Duma, M. (1995). Community Involvement in Rural schools in Pietermaritzburg Area. (Masters’ Thesis, University of South Africa. ). Education in South Africa. Retrieved October 19, 2005 from www. southafrica. info/ess_info/saglance. education/education. htm Erasmus, BJ, Loedolff, PvZ, Mda, T & Nel, PS. (2009). Managing training and development in South Africa (5th ed. ). Cape Town: Oxford. Finnermore, M. (2009). Introduction to Labour Relations in South Africa (10th ed. ). Durban: Butterworths. Holford, L. Ziervogel, C. & Smith C. (2001). Child and adolescent psychiatry. In B. Robertson, C. Allwood, C. A. Cagiano. (Eds). Textbook of Psychiatry for Southern Africa (1st ed) Cape Town: Oxford University Press. (pp. 282 – 321). Landsberg, E. (2011). (Ed. ). Addressing Barriers to Learning: A South African Perspective. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. (pp. 69-85). Mabokela, R. O. (2000). Voices of conflict: Desegregating South African universities. New York, Routledge Falmer. Sedibe, M. (2011). Inequality of Access to Resources in Previously Disadvantaged South African High Schools.The Journal of Social Science, 28(2), 129-135. Seroto, J. (2004). The impact of South African Legislation (1948 – 2004) on Black Education in R ural Areas: A Historical Educational Perspective. (Doctoral dissertation, University of South Africa. ). Swart, E. , & Pettipher, R. (2005). A framework for understanding inclusion. In E. Landsberg, D. Kruger & N. Nel (Eds). Addressing barriers to learning: A South African perspective. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. (pp. 3-23). Tedla, E. (1995). Sankofa: African thought and education. New York, NY: Peter Lang.

History of Cars Essay

The invention of the automobile is an evolution of ideas and actions, beginning with Leonardo da Vinci and Isaac Newton’s theoretical plans for a motor vehicle that led to the invention of the first self-propelled vehicle. The invention of the automobile changed American society by transforming a country of isolated communities into a single entity. The ultimate honor of the first motorized vehicle is attributed to Nicolas Joseph Cugnot, an engineer and mechanic in the French Military. In 1769, Cugnot made his first attempt to construct an automobile. He called it â€Å"Fardier a vapeur† and it reached a top speed of 4 km/h. Even though his first attempt failed, he presented the world with a breakthrough in technology. Cugnot also has another title to his name: the first person ever to be involved in a motor vehicle accident in 1770. He crashed his second invention of the steam-powered tricycle, which could carry 4 passengers. In 1789, the American Oliver Evans was granted the first US patent for a steam-powered land vehicle thus introduced America to a new mode of transportation. In 1807, another breakthrough was brought about. A Swiss man named Francois Isaac de Rivaz invented the internal combustion engine that used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen for fuel. Because he only invented the engine, Rivaz had many people construct automobiles into which he could put the engine. This plan failed but it was the idea of the engine that stayed alive. A few decades later, a man named Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir invented and patented a double-acting, electric spark-ignition, internal combustion engine fueled by gasoline. With this, Lenior was able to successfully make a 55-mile road trip and people’s lives began to change. In 1876, Nikolaus August Otto invented a successful four-stroke engine called the Otto Cycle. With this new breakthrough, the race to invent the first modern automobile began in a hurry. Gottlieb Daimer and Wilhelm Maybach took Otto’s engine a step further and made what is recognized as the prototype of the modern gas engine. The two men named their creation the â€Å"Daimler-Maybech engine† which made Dailmer considered to be the first inventor of a practical combustion ngine. Karl Benz, in 1885, became the first to design and build the world’s first practical automobile to be powered by an internal combustion engine. By January 29th, 1886, Benz received the first patent for a gas-fuelled car (only three wheels). On March 8th 1886, Daimler designed the world’s first four-wheeled automobile. In 1889, Daimler invented a V slanted 2 cylinder, four s troke engine with mushroom shaped valves. This became the standard model for all cars going forward. In America in the 1900’s, people were still relying on the electric automobiles. America’s first gasoline-powered commercial car manufacturers were brothers Charles and Frank Duryea (1893). Together, these two introduced a working gasoline automobile that easily outdated the electric vehicles. The first automobile to be mass-produced in America was the 1901 Curved Dash Oldsmobile built by American Ransome Eli Olds. A total of 425 Curved Dashes were produced just in 1901. Oldsmobile therefore took the title of America’s leading auto manufacturer from 1901-1904. A man named Henry Ford designed his first automobile and named it â€Å"Quadricycle. However, he had no real success with that invention. When he formed the Ford Motor Company in 1903, which is where he found success. His Model T, in 1903, became increasingly popular making Ford and his company the most popular in America. Because of cars, cities in America grew and suburbs appeared for the first time. Factory workers no longer needed to live near their factory because the new means of transp ortation allowed them to commute across town. Cars completely replaced any other means of transportation in both efficiency and usefulness and brought America closer together.

Washingtons Farewell Address

Washingtons Farewell Address Time was running fast and the period that George Washington was to be in office had come to an end. Being the first president and having seen what the country needed, Washington felt obliged to leave the country in a peaceful state.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Washington’s Farewell Address specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Citizens were in a state of confusion, unable to imagine a government without Washington. To help in restoring people’s confidence in the succeeding regime, he decided to sensitize the public that leaders cannot achieve anything on their own. Moreover, he touches on various issues that are critical for prosperity of America. Addressing the nation, Washington begins by insisting on the importance of unity to the American people. He warns the Americans that unity of all states is paramount in protection of their freedom (Washington, 2004). He continues by stating that the greatest en emy of America will be the person whose main agenda will be to divide Americans along any ideologies. In this regard, Washington wants all Americans irrespective of religion, gender, ethnicity or race to work towards enhancing the culture of togetherness. Citizens should first of all consider themselves as Americans before grouping themselves along other aspects. It should be noted that Americans are not exhorted to stick together in good times only, but also in hard times for example during credit crunch (Whitney, 2003). It is upon every citizen to avoid any person who seems to interfere with the unity of the American States. The west will need some products from the east same with the south and the north. Washington enumerates the benefits received so far through combined effort, and the many more that are expected. Additionally, he highlights the dangers of a divided nation. In addition, Washington points out the dangers that can occur if political parties are used wrongly. The F ederalist Party, which selectively promoted interests of some people, adds to the weight of Washington’s point that political parties can be manipulated. He argues that political parties are necessary in any human society, but warns that they should be accepted with a pinch of salt (Washington, 2004). Washington emphasizes that the tendency of political parties to take sides in foreign matters like War is harmful to the country. According to him, the country will be better off if it remained neutral regarding foreign matters.Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In his view, America should refrain from making permanent friends or enemies since this will lead to partiality which is not good for the nation. Washington warns that political parties are only beneficial in dictatorial governments. However, they must be placed under control in democratic governments since they h ave a tendency of diverging attention of governments from critical issues. Furthermore, Washington coaxes Americans to always protect and uphold the new constitution. He tells them that though the constitution might not address every issue that they would have wanted, it is a mile stone in steps towards controlling the nation. In this regard, Washington urges Americans to protect the constitution from power hungry politicians, who will seek to weaken it for their selfish interests in the name of developing the nation (Hargrove, 2000). Though he categorically states that he does not think he has been a good president, Washington warns that human beings get intoxicated by power. Consequently, he warns Americans to be careful with whom they choose to lead them. Stressing on the importance of the constitution and the negative impacts of political parties, Washington points out the benefits of decentralized method of governorship (Whitney, 2003). Americans are encouraged to ensure that t oo much power is not concentrated in one office, because this will lead to despotic and diabolic dictators whose main agenda will be serving personal interests. Moreover, he wants the succeeding governments to avoid public debts. While he accepts that debts are sometimes inevitable, he wants governments to pay back as soon as possible because debts enslave nations. However, Washington goes ahead to state that this does not imply that the nation should not offer financial assistance. Most importantly, Washington stresses on the importance of peace by outlining the effects of rebellions. Washington emphasizes on the role of religion in society. He says that religion is a fundamental ingredient in enhancing morality. He argues that it is difficult for a leader to brag of good leadership qualities without a religious background. Religiosity instills good behavior in people and thus will play an important role in ensuring that there is unity and harmony among citizens (Washington, 2004). On top of that, Washington underscores the importance of education in development of a nation. He tells Americans that the nation will prosper only if the average level of education is increased.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Washington’s Farewell Address specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Having been a president, Washington knows what the country needs for prosperity. He points out what he thinks has made his time in office successful. Though he is leaving office, Washington wants Americans to know that they are moving in the good direction. Lastly, Washington is aware of the fact that his advice might not be taken serious at that point in time, but he hopes one day people will reflect on what he says for guidance. References Hargrove, J. (2000). Washington’s Farewell Address: History Speak. Dayton: Lorenz Educational Press. Washington, G. (2004). Washington’s Farewell Address to the People of the United States. Washington: Government Printing Office. Whitney, G. (2003). American Presidents: Farewell Messages to the Nation, 1796-2001. Lanham: Lexington Books.

Five Longest Mountain Ranges in Europe

Five Longest Mountain Ranges in Europe Europe is one of the smallest continents but you wouldnt know it from the size of some of its mountain ranges. The mountains of Europe have been home to some of the most daring feats in history, used by explorers and warlords alike. The ability to safely  navigate these mountain ranges helped shape the world we know today through trade routes and military achievements. While today these mountain  ranges are mostly used for skiing and marveling at their wondrous views, their history is no less important.  Ã‚   Five Longest Mountain Ranges in Europe Scandinavian Mountains - 1762 kilometers (1095 miles) Also known as the Scandes, this mountain range stretches through the Scandinavian Peninsula. They are the longest mountain range in Europe. The mountains arent considered  very high but theyre known for their steepness. The western side drops into the North and Norwegian sea. Its northern location makes it prone to ice fields and glaciers.   Carpathian Mountains - 1500 kilometers (900 miles) The Carpathians stretch across Eastern and Central Europe. Theyre the second-longest mountain range in the region. The mountain range can be divided into three major sections, the Eastern Carpathians, Western Carpathians, and the Southern Carpathians. The second largest virgin forest in Europe is located in these mountains. They are also home to a large population of brown bears, wolves, chamois, and lynx. Hikers can find many mineral and thermal springs in the foothills.   Alps - 1200 kilometers (750 miles) The Alps are probably the most famous mountain range in Europe. This range of mountains stretches across eight countries. Hannibal once famously rode Elephants across them but today the mountain  range is more home to skiers than pachyderms. The Romantic poets would be enamored with the ethereal beauty of these mountains, making them the backdrop for many novels and poems. Farming and forestry are large parts of these mountains economies along with tourism. The Alps remain one of the worlds top  travel destinations, with good reason.  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹ Caucasus Mountains - 1100 kilometers (683 miles) This mountain range is notable not only for its length but also for being the dividing line between Europe and Asia.  This mountain range was an important part of the historical trade route known as the Silk Road. This was the road which connected the ancient Eastern and Western world. It was in use as early as 207 B.C., carrying silk, horses and other goods to trade between continents.   Apennine Mountains - 1000 kilometers (620 miles) The Apennine mountain range stretches the length of the Italian Penninsula. In 2000, the Environment Ministry of Italy suggested extending the range to include the mountains of Northern Sicily. This addition would make the range 1,500 kilometers (930 miles) long. It has one of the most intact ecosystems in the country. These mountains are one of the last natural refuges of the largest European predators like the Italian wolf and Marsican brown bear, which have gone extinct in other regions.

Biology Osmosis Observation

Independent: sugar concentration in potatoes. Controlled: time, potato form. Apparatus: 1. 5 plastic cups 2. Distilated water 3. Potato 4. Knife 5. Clock 6. Electronical scales (Â ±0,05) 7. Bag of sugar 8. Measuring cylinder 9. Tap water Method: Peeling down the potato and cutting it into 1cm3 cubes (25 cubes) Weighing potatoes on the scales Putting different amount of sugar into five plastic cups (1st no sugar 2nd 6,8g 3rd 13,7g 4th 20,5 5th 27,4g) Adding 100ml of water to each of the cups Mixing the sugar with water Putting in 5 potatoes into each cup Waiting 20 minutes Pulling out the potatoes, drying them up and putting on the scales Writing down new mass. Amount of sugar in solutionSolution concentration %Cup numberMass of five cubes before(Â ±0,05g)Mass of five cubes after (Â ±0,05g) 0g0%15,8g6g 6,8g6,37%25,1g5,2g 13,7g12,05%35,5g5,3g 20,5g17. 01%45,6g5,4g 27,4g21,51%55,5g5,3g Graph: While the concentration is from 0% to 6,37% the net mass gets bigger, later on from 12,05% to 21,51% the net mass gets smaller. When the concentration is from 0% to 6,37% the net mass change is positive, when from 17. 01% to 21,51% – negative. Conclusion: The potato lost more mass as it was submerged in bigger concentration solutions because the bigger concentration difference is, the osmosis will occurs more intensively. Evaluation: I think that laboratory work went pretty well, I managed to see the differences in potato mass change and make a conclusion of it. Next time I should write down original numbers and not rounded ones to give more accurate results. Biology Osmosis Observation Independent: sugar concentration in potatoes. Controlled: time, potato form. Apparatus: 1. 5 plastic cups 2. Distilated water 3. Potato 4. Knife 5. Clock 6. Electronical scales (Â ±0,05) 7. Bag of sugar 8. Measuring cylinder 9. Tap water Method: Peeling down the potato and cutting it into 1cm3 cubes (25 cubes) Weighing potatoes on the scales Putting different amount of sugar into five plastic cups (1st no sugar 2nd 6,8g 3rd 13,7g 4th 20,5 5th 27,4g) Adding 100ml of water to each of the cups Mixing the sugar with water Putting in 5 potatoes into each cup Waiting 20 minutes Pulling out the potatoes, drying them up and putting on the scales Writing down new mass. Amount of sugar in solutionSolution concentration %Cup numberMass of five cubes before(Â ±0,05g)Mass of five cubes after (Â ±0,05g) 0g0%15,8g6g 6,8g6,37%25,1g5,2g 13,7g12,05%35,5g5,3g 20,5g17. 01%45,6g5,4g 27,4g21,51%55,5g5,3g Graph: While the concentration is from 0% to 6,37% the net mass gets bigger, later on from 12,05% to 21,51% the net mass gets smaller. When the concentration is from 0% to 6,37% the net mass change is positive, when from 17. 01% to 21,51% – negative. Conclusion: The potato lost more mass as it was submerged in bigger concentration solutions because the bigger concentration difference is, the osmosis will occurs more intensively. Evaluation: I think that laboratory work went pretty well, I managed to see the differences in potato mass change and make a conclusion of it. Next time I should write down original numbers and not rounded ones to give more accurate results.

How Open was the Landed elite during the era 1780 - 1888 Essay

How Open was the Landed elite during the era 1780 - 1888 - Essay Example In European agrarian societies, after the medieval period, land was attributed as a highly demanded asset because it enabled the feudal lords to produce crops for subsistence. However, that was not the only purpose land served. Land was largely seen as a status symbol, a highly valued possession, whose worth could be gauged and flaunted .It was regarded as a safe asset, where wealth could be sustained for a long period, without the fear of deception or fraud. In addition to economic power, land enabled the landowners to amass political powers as well. This was so, as the owner of an estate also served as the head of the community and solved domestic disputes. Moreover, it allowed the landlords to control the inhabitants that lived on his estate, the majority of which derived subsistence through working on his lands. A landlord had a wide access to people who held positions of authority, which buttressed his influence and prestige in his region . Hence, land enabled him to uphold an administrative role in his area, in addition to it,accruing economic and political power. In England, while some men acquired land in order to establish their names, from a feudal family or become part of the landed elite, the others acquired it as an investment or amenity. Due to laws and policies, acquiring land became easier. For example, the Act of 1711 passed in Ireland, which forced MPs to hold land, which was later, revised in 1760 to add more people who were legally able to possess land, greatly incentive people to acquire landiii. The legal obstacles were removed for them and lawyers devised easy and cheap ways to acquire land. Some political entities also bought land in order to ensure their electoral strength.The demand for land also increased as people sought to keep it in order to undertake leisurely endeavors such as shooting and hunting. Some bought land in order to keep it as a buffer before they retirediv. Interest rates came to be greatly associated with the worth of land in the early eighteenth century. Sometimes, when the interest rates were low, espec ially during and after Louis XIV wars, many people expected that the value of land would adjust to ultimately lower levels and hence, acquired lands. During the mid-Victorian boom 1790-1815, rental rates in England surged, and hence, the attractiveness of land as an asset increased. In addition, it was regarded as a stable investment as its value did not fluctuate as much as government bonds in England, as a result of political shocksv. Marriages also allowed for acquisition of land, as office holders who belonged to prestigious families but did not have lands, often married into landholding families, and hence became part of the landed elite. Many of them either belonged to political establishment, or were rich merchants. Many of them were traders in East India Company, who later themselves married into land owning families, or married their sons and daughters, and became part of the landed elitevi. A number of these merchants, who served in the subcontinent, commonly known as â₠¬Ëœ

Portfolio Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Portfolio - Essay Example Block center O. Dramatic Play center P. Climbing area Q. Window Front 3-D view Back 3-D view 3-D view from sides Reflection I created the models for my classroom using an online classroom planning tool. It was really helpful to be able to use the program to plan how I wanted to set up my room. However, the choices of furniture were limited, so I couldn’t be as detailed as I would have liked. I still want to set my future classroom up like the classroom I designed, although I might switch the art center and the soft/book center so that the art center has better lighting. Culturally Respectful Menu Breakfast Lunch Snack Monday Corn pancakes Milk Spaghetti, salad and pears Milk Banana bread Orange Juice Tuesday Sausage Rolls Milk Cuban sandwich, Arroz con pollo, pineapple Milk Tortilla chips Apple Juice Wednesday Open Faced Omelet Orange Juice Chinese pot stickers, fried rice, steamed vegetables Milk Chinese filled buns Milk Thursday Quiche Lorraine Milk Burritos, refried beans, guacamole salad Milk Rice crackers Apple Juice Friday Huevos Rancheros Orange Juice Yakitori, egg noodles, fruit skewers Milk Cheese buns Milk Reflection I arranged the menu the way that I did to make sure that the children got milk twice a day and fruit or vegetables every day. I also made sure that there are at least three different food groups present each day. On the menu, I offered food from the United States, Latin America, South America, Europe and Asia. I really like how culturally varied the menu is, however if I had to plan a menu again, I would make sure that the students were getting a fruit and a vegetable every day. I would also try to balance the menu so that it was less carbohydrate heavy on certain days. Play Observation for a Child with Special Needs I observed in a 4 year old classroom. The classroom, as well as the child care center it was in, followed Adlerian psychology. The basic idea of Adlerian psychology is to encourage the development of healthy and cooper ative individuals and families. The student that I focused on was a student that was diagnosed with ADHD. One technique that I noticed a teacher use when working with the child was rewarding the child when he had a good behavior and ignoring negative behavior. I believe the goal of this method was to show the student that the teacher would only pay him attention when he was behaving well. This was an effective strategy because it caused the student to behave in more positive ways. Another technique that I saw was keeping a posted schedule and referring the child to the schedule whenever he asked a question about what was coming next. The goal of this method was to provide a stable, structured schedule for the child to refer to. I believe this was an effective strategy because the child often used it and had a reduced anxiety about what was coming up next. I also noticed that the teacher gave clear behavior expectations before all activities. The goal of this method was to remind the student of what behaviors were acceptable in class. I believe this was an effective strategy because it helped the student to remember how he should behave during activities. The teacher also spoke to the student privately when they were doing more complex activities. The goal of this activity was to reinforce the steps needed to complete the activity and to clarify any steps. She went over the steps that he would have to take to complete the activity with him, then asked him if he had any questions and

La Belle Epoque 1900-1914 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

La Belle Epoque 1900-1914 - Essay Example The working conditions were improved with the rise of labor unions and this made it possible to coexist peacefully. Regarding losers and winners, it was expected for gender equality issues to surface. Women were primary winners as they for the first time were allowed to work in factories and also to form their liberation movements. Besides equalization and factory safety for all professions, the right to vote was claimed by everybody as evident during voting exercise in the video. France also won as it achieved great strides in technology and military advancement in Europe. As with losers, the world leaders who were strong peace advocates became losers as the 1st World War startedright away (Grapevine, 2014). As with transformations, various changes are evident in urban development, gender equality, and to technology. During the La Belle, major urban development took place that shows the rise of icons such as Eiffel tower to surface (Grapevine, 2014). The nature of manufacturing work also evolved. The proceeding production became split between mechanization and rationalization. Consequently, the formerly hard to treat diseases could now be treated leading to the decline of infant mortality and a substantial increase in life expectancy. Whereas it is not apparent how long the period was, it is estimated to have lasted for less than 15 years. The La Belle à ©poque did not last, but it was a short period of prosperity and transformation.

Management and Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Management and Leadership - Essay Example Most organizations would only hire those individuals suitable for a particular position and the one they are mostly suited. Further, workers must be trained in their respective positions to ensure that there is improved productivity as well as personal career development. The training would be on how to perform the job and the best standards to be applied (Koestenbaun, 2002). Early Approach to Classical Administration The scientific approach to management focuses on the overall productivity of employees. However, classical administration approach to administration places much importance on the total organization. The most important aspect is on the development of good management practices rather than the development of work methods. In any organization, for effective management, there has to be effective flow of information from the top managers to the subordinates. Effective communication reduces the amount of time spent in unproductive duties. Communicating effectively ensures that employees are able to spend most of their time doing constructive and beneficial duties to the organization. Further, effective communication fosters unity between the management and the employees. This can eliminate problems of industrial actions that result due to lack of understanding between the management and the employees. In classical administration, most companies were managed on a personal family like basis. The employees in the organization were expected to be submissive to their managers rather than to the organization (Lussier & Achua, 2009). Tesco Management Model Tesco management model states that employees must be given a chance to meet their full potential. In carrying out their duties, they should not be discriminated against due to age, gender, disability, ethnicity or sexual operation. Due to these factors, Tesco has been able to rise from a small retail supermarket to the world’s fourth largest retail market. Good leaders and managers must ensure that the ir employees are given a chance to contribute to the wellbeing of the organization. This can only be achieved through effective communication. The diversity approach to management at Tesco ensures that all levels of the society are represented in the organization. Tesco aims at employing local people as well as developing them to become effective leaders in the development of the business. Further, Tesco does not discriminate on the basis of ethnic origin. Understanding among various ethnic groups is the basic priority of Tesco. This ensures that corporation among employees is ensures. Lloyds TSB's Management Model Lloyds TSB is major banking and insurance group in the UK with several other branches in more than 30 countries across the world. Their main aim is to be the best bank in the world. Measures of performance at Lloyds TSB are geared towards the faster completion of task completion. This is the best example of accompany that employs bureaucratic form of governance. Measureme nt of performance is not towards goal accomplishments but task completion, and the process revolved around the bureaucratic process of form filling. Most employees are required to sign up to some common agreed upon goals (Lloyds TSB,2012). The first goal is finance. Employees at the organization are expected to maximize income and optimize cost so as to bring about increased revenues. Secondly, employees must be able to maximize the number of new customers, products and services which are sold in the organizat

Teaching of Maths in Primary Schools Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Teaching of Maths in Primary Schools - Essay Example Mike Askew et al in their study on effectiveness in the teaching of numeracy isolated three belief systems that were characteristic of the approaches teachers took in teaching numeracy. They were the connectionist, transmission and discovery models. An in-depth look at their respective characteristics, relative merits and overall efficacy is given below. The Connectionist Model: In the words of Askew et al (1997, p.341) it includes "beliefs based around both valuing pupils' methods and teaching effective strategies with an emphasis on establishing connections within mathematics." The stress here is on efficiency as well as effectiveness. The keyword is "connection" as connectionist oriented teachers seek to teach students to establish links between the numbers, methods and concepts in mathematics in order to facilitate a deeper understanding of the subject. Students are expected to be aware of the available methods and to demonstrate skill in selecting the appropriate method. "The connectionist orientation places a strong emphasis on developing reasoning, justification and, eventually, proof within the teaching of number."(Askew et al, 1997, p.343) These teachers believe that students come equipped with mental strategies and it is possible for anyone to achieve proficiency in mathematics with the help of effective teaching. Misunder standings are seen as a way to clarify matters and enhance understanding. An important tool for the connectionist oriented teacher is the use of dialogue as the basis of imparting knowledge. The Transmission Model: According to Askew et al (1997, p.341) it is the "beliefs based around the primacy of teaching and a view of mathematics as a collection of separate routines and procedures." Teachers of this orientation set much store by routine and paper and pencil methods. They teach mathematical concepts in isolation. A student's prior knowledge of the subject is largely seen as irrelevant. The emphasis here is on teaching rather than on learning. If the student fails to learn despite a clear verbal explanation, it is seen as a result of the child's inability to learn. The teacher uses the question and answer format to discern students' progress. The Discovery Model: Askew et al (1997, p.341 state that it includes "beliefs based around the primacy of learning and a view of mathematics as being discovered by pupils." Here the stress is on the process of discovery as the student explores and understands the world of mathematics. The method used is considered irrelevant, provided the correct answer is arrived at. It aims to focus on and improve practical skills. As per this orientation learning is of importance and students are encouraged to learn at their pace and use the strategies they see as appropriate. Numeracy is seen as a natural process and it cannot be hastened. Having noted the salient features of these belief systems, it must be remembered that they are 'ideal types' and it is unlikely that any teacher will be a purist with regard to these orientations. With regard to efficiency in teaching mathematics there is little room for doubt. Askew et al (1997, p.345) have concluded from their studies "that those teachers with a strong

La Belle Epoque 1900-1914 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

La Belle Epoque 1900-1914 - Essay Example The working conditions were improved with the rise of labor unions and this made it possible to coexist peacefully. Regarding losers and winners, it was expected for gender equality issues to surface. Women were primary winners as they for the first time were allowed to work in factories and also to form their liberation movements. Besides equalization and factory safety for all professions, the right to vote was claimed by everybody as evident during voting exercise in the video. France also won as it achieved great strides in technology and military advancement in Europe. As with losers, the world leaders who were strong peace advocates became losers as the 1st World War startedright away (Grapevine, 2014). As with transformations, various changes are evident in urban development, gender equality, and to technology. During the La Belle, major urban development took place that shows the rise of icons such as Eiffel tower to surface (Grapevine, 2014). The nature of manufacturing work also evolved. The proceeding production became split between mechanization and rationalization. Consequently, the formerly hard to treat diseases could now be treated leading to the decline of infant mortality and a substantial increase in life expectancy. Whereas it is not apparent how long the period was, it is estimated to have lasted for less than 15 years. The La Belle à ©poque did not last, but it was a short period of prosperity and transformation.

Teaching of Maths in Primary Schools Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Teaching of Maths in Primary Schools - Essay Example Mike Askew et al in their study on effectiveness in the teaching of numeracy isolated three belief systems that were characteristic of the approaches teachers took in teaching numeracy. They were the connectionist, transmission and discovery models. An in-depth look at their respective characteristics, relative merits and overall efficacy is given below. The Connectionist Model: In the words of Askew et al (1997, p.341) it includes "beliefs based around both valuing pupils' methods and teaching effective strategies with an emphasis on establishing connections within mathematics." The stress here is on efficiency as well as effectiveness. The keyword is "connection" as connectionist oriented teachers seek to teach students to establish links between the numbers, methods and concepts in mathematics in order to facilitate a deeper understanding of the subject. Students are expected to be aware of the available methods and to demonstrate skill in selecting the appropriate method. "The connectionist orientation places a strong emphasis on developing reasoning, justification and, eventually, proof within the teaching of number."(Askew et al, 1997, p.343) These teachers believe that students come equipped with mental strategies and it is possible for anyone to achieve proficiency in mathematics with the help of effective teaching. Misunder standings are seen as a way to clarify matters and enhance understanding. An important tool for the connectionist oriented teacher is the use of dialogue as the basis of imparting knowledge. The Transmission Model: According to Askew et al (1997, p.341) it is the "beliefs based around the primacy of teaching and a view of mathematics as a collection of separate routines and procedures." Teachers of this orientation set much store by routine and paper and pencil methods. They teach mathematical concepts in isolation. A student's prior knowledge of the subject is largely seen as irrelevant. The emphasis here is on teaching rather than on learning. If the student fails to learn despite a clear verbal explanation, it is seen as a result of the child's inability to learn. The teacher uses the question and answer format to discern students' progress. The Discovery Model: Askew et al (1997, p.341 state that it includes "beliefs based around the primacy of learning and a view of mathematics as being discovered by pupils." Here the stress is on the process of discovery as the student explores and understands the world of mathematics. The method used is considered irrelevant, provided the correct answer is arrived at. It aims to focus on and improve practical skills. As per this orientation learning is of importance and students are encouraged to learn at their pace and use the strategies they see as appropriate. Numeracy is seen as a natural process and it cannot be hastened. Having noted the salient features of these belief systems, it must be remembered that they are 'ideal types' and it is unlikely that any teacher will be a purist with regard to these orientations. With regard to efficiency in teaching mathematics there is little room for doubt. Askew et al (1997, p.345) have concluded from their studies "that those teachers with a strong

Reflective Account Essay Example for Free

Reflective Account Essay This seemed to keep his mind off worrying about were his wife or daughter was and stopped him from wanting to walk about the ward. After a while the patient asked if he could lie down for a while, and I explained that this was ok. I lowered the bed for the patient as low as it would go, to prevent the patient from falling or injuring himself while climbing into the bed. By doing this I was following the guidelines set out by the health and safety at work act 1972 and carrying out risk assessments to prevent harm to myself or others. Once the patient had got into the bed safely I put the bed side up to prevent him from falling out while he was sleeping, I then gave him his buzzer. Before leaving the room I asked the patient if he would like the room door left open or closed over, by doing this I was promoting the patients right to choice and individuality. I then left the room and closed the door as the patient had requested, and told the staff nurse in charge of him, that he was now sleeping, and that I had emptied his catheter bag and updated the fluid balance chart. I had to tell the staff nurse that I had left the room, so that if anything happened they knew that I was not there, as I would be accountable for it. Being accountable for my actions is one of the NMC code of conduct and is in line with professional accountability. I think that this task was very fulfilling as I was able to help other staff around me, as well as keep a patient calm. I enjoyed talking to the patient and found it very interesting. It also allowed me to practice keeping patient’s charts up to date. References

Coca Cola The Company | Commerce Essay

Coca Cola The Company | Commerce Essay Organizations do not simply appears on their own, It requires proper planning and formal structure to ensure that organization will perform as expected. It is a social system formed by likeminded people, to achieve stated objectives or common goals of participants. Organizational design deals with factors and issues that should be considered, rules and processes that must be implemented. A successful organizational design helps to develop, implement and maintain effective organizational process, (Allan S.Gutterman). Organizational design is more than just defining the formal structure of organization. (Allan S.Gutterman).it also includes management decision making process, values, policies, mission, vision, goals and purposes for which organization exists. Thus it requires creativity and careful planning to design structure of an organization. This creativity has led the organizational design to organizational architecture. Coca cola the company: http://jobs.paktutorial.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Coca-Cola.gif Coca cola is a beverage company. It is manufacturer, distributor, and marketer for non-alcohol beverages and syrups. The coca cola company is truly global firm in real terms. Coca cola operate very smartly around the globe. It knows how to deal with changed culture, drinking habits and taste for specific beverages in specific regions. It thus used to changes its syrup formula and molds it according to taste and preferences of people in different regions. There are five main factors that holds important place in success of coca cola. Well recognized brand Around the globe Consistently improving quality Innovative and unique marketing program worldwide Availability on large scale, almost in every region of world Continuous stream of quality products e.g. Diet Coke (1982), Coca-Cola Vanilla (2002). Probably, coca cola is the sole product that is universally relevant in every corner of the globe, the Company feels that its its responsibility is to ensure that with every single can or bottle of Coca-Cola sold and enjoyed, individual connections are made with their consumer. Organizational structure of coca cola: Organizational structure of coca cola has characteristics of both mechanical and organic structure. The company has a centralized structure but recently there is a twist, it is moving from centralized to decentralized structure. Coca cola is well aware of how important it is to meet ever changing demands of customers. This realization has played key role in transition from centralized to decentralized structure of Coca cola. Two main operating groups of company include corporate and bottling management. Corporate operations are also divided in different regions like America, Europe, and Africa North America etc. in order to be more responsive to local demands of customers in different regions, its will work a lot to allow and encourage decision making at local level. In this way, upper management can devote more time to long term planning rather than devoting time to short term and little issues. Important decisions of company like financial human resource, innovation marketing strategy etc are centrally located within corporate division of company. In each region f company, some of these functions are performed on low level; most of the decisions are made by top management of company. For instance the decision to support world cup was made by top management, but local and regional branched were also considered important and were allowed to make advertising decisions. Such as they were asked to develop marketing strategies for local market In 2004, new CEO, Neville lsdell introduced more complex interategrate mechanism. In order to recover from extremely growth rate or company, lsdell used team of top management to create a culture of innovation and decision making. Employees at lower level can be informed by face to face meetings. Balance in organizational design is important as it allows some flexibility, as well as it will give organization some flexibility. The design of the company is hybrid or mixture of both organic ad mechanistic structure, and the company emphasis more on responsiveness. Recent research has revealed that company has 94800 employees, and more than five hierarchal levels of organization. Although the structure is good enough, company faces the communication problem. One survey revealed that company and people lack clear goals and objectives. While organization is trying to engage ore employed, that tall hierarchies will also create communication problems at the company. From last two decades, many firms are founding it difficult to reach their financial objectives, due to recent ethical crisis associate with organizations financial objectives. Warren Buffet served as a member of the board of directors and was a strong supporter and investor in Coca-Cola but resigned from the board in 2006 after several years of frustration with Coca-Colas failure to overcome many challenges. In 2000, company failed to make the top ten of Fortunes annual Americas Most Admired Companies list for the first time in a decade. The company is committed to refresh everyone who had touched the business of coca cola. Thus company gained the status of well recognized brand around the globe. Coca cola has great concern for social responsibility. The company is fulfilling all requirements of Corporate and social responsibility. it believes in transparency, honesty and integrity in business dealings, improved relationships with all stakeholders. In its services for community, coca cola has provided scholarships to more than 170 colleges, and this number is expected to grow to 287 over the next four years. It includes 30 tribal colleges belonging to the American Indian College Fund. Coca-Cola is also involved with the Hispanic Scholarship Fund. So, the demand of more accountability has no clear impact on behavior of Coca Cola. Conclusion: Coca cola is a very well reputed and well recognized beverage supplier all around the globe. It has hybrid structure of organic and mechanistic structure of organization. The company is committed to provide continuously improved quality products. To be more responsive to local demand of customers in different regions, coca cola allows local managers, at lower level to make decisions about changing demands of local customers to be more responsive, flexible and adaptive to change. The structure of company has centralized decision making as well decentralized to some extent. Some decisions are made by top management and lower level employees are engaged in decision making process by allowing them to decide about promotional or marketing strategy for their respective regions. Coca cola is in struggle to Connect with more employees; this has created some communication problems for the company. Company has enough potential to cope with different challenges and issues. Coca cola has great concern for CSR practices and believe on transparency, honesty and integrity in business operations so, the increased demand to accountability has no negative impact on coca cola, and instead it is contributing factor in improved performance by the company.

Trifles Essay -- essays research papers fc

Little Trifles Add Up to a Big Case Detectives are always looking for little pieces of evidence when investigating a crime. After all, it is this evidence that can turn a trial around, whether be it for the good or bad. This is especially the case in Susan Glaspell's Trifles. When Mrs. Hale comes across little pieces of evidence, she passes them off as being "trifles", hiding them from the detective. She is the sole reason that very little evidence is collected that would convict Mrs. Wright, and can be believed to have some sort of involvement in the murder of John Wright. Mrs. Hale, being estranged from Mrs. Wright for over a year, had something to prove when she went into the house that day. Whether it is out of guilt from not seeing Mrs. Wright, or because she was actually an accomplice in helping Mrs. Wright get away with the act, we'll never know. However, Mrs. Hale knew what she was doing when she started to dismiss evidence before the detective's eyes had seen it. She was also very committed to showing that Mrs. Wright wasn't a bad homemaker, dismissing most of that evidence also. Mrs. Hale first shows signs of her guilt when she defends some bad housekeeping evidence, blaming it on things that men do. When attention it brought to a dirty towel, Mrs. Hale dismisses it because " Men's hands aren't always as clean as they might be"(1121). Her actions are then...

rainforest destruction Essay -- essays research papers

Rainforest Destruction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Rainforests cover less than two percent of the Earth’s surface yet they are home to some forty to fifty percent of all life forms on our planet: as many as 30 million species of plants, animals and insects. The Rainforests are quite simply, the richest, oldest most productive and most complex ecosystems on earth. As biologist Norman Myers says, â€Å"Rainforests are the finest celebration of nature ever known on the planet and never before has nature’s greatest orchestration been so threatened.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Rainforests are very important to the world for many reasons, most of them being very simple. One of the major reasons is that the plants in the forest turn carbon dioxide into clean air, which helps us, fight pollution. Also, by absorbing carbon dioxide, the rainforests help deter the greenhouse effect.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The plants and animals of the rainforest also provide us with food, fuel, wood, shelter, jobs and medicine. â€Å"Imagine losing the potential cure for cancer or AIDS that might have been found in an undiscovered plant from the rainforest.† (Tropical Rainforest Coalition, 1996) â€Å"The vine Aucistrocladus koropensis may be effective in treating AIDS; we can only guess what other beneficial plants may be destroyed before we find them.† (Allo, 1996) It is repeated often that the rainforest contains important plants that will cure the worst diseases of today. Although there is scientific proof of its value, the rainforest continues to disappear. â€Å"In every sense, a standing rainforest supplies more economic wealth then if it were cleared†¦yet deforestation continues at an alarming rate.† (Tropical Rainforest Coalition, 1996)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tropical rainforests are found in eighty-five countries around the world. â€Å"Ninety percent of these forests are concentrated into fifteen countries, each country containing over ten million hectares each.† (Malaysian Timber Council, 1995) Tropical rainforests are located around the equator, where temperatures stay above eighty degrees Fahrenheit year round. These forests are very dense and damp. â€Å"Although tropical rainforests cover just seven percent of the Earth’s surface, they can provide habitat for between fifty to ninety percent of its plant and animal species. In 1990, tropical rainforests totaled some 1.7 billio... ...ese rainforest species have never even been seen. â€Å"Scientist estimates an average of 137 species of life forms are driven into extinction everyday or 50,000 each year.† (Myers) While extinction is supposed to be a natural selection this is purely human induced. Quite simply when habitat is reduces, species disappear.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  All in all, the tropical rainforests are one of the Earth’s greatest assets. We need to preserve this valuable resource. It could provide the cure for cancer or AIDS but we’ll never know if we continue to deforest it. There are now ways to fight back against the destruction of our rainforests. Many people now boycott; for example not eating fast food because the meat come from rainforest cattle because they are cheap, or by not buying furniture made from rosewood, mahogany, ebony, and teakwood, because they most likely came from the rainforest as well. People can also adopt an acre of tropical rainforest for only 45 dollars. Rainforests are very complex ecosystems and have many untapped resources which we have barely scratched the surface on. Preservation of the rainforest is essential for our well being and the well being of the future.

Competitive Strategy Essay

â€Å"Successful and unsuccessful strategies shape a company’s destiny† – R.A. Burgelman, Strategy is Destiny†¦ Competitive Strategy is the high-level strategy used by the firm to realize its business goals, and in particular, profitability, in the face of competition. We study competitive strategy within the overall context of technology firms, which operate within a so-called industry, e.g., the computer industry, the consumer electronic industry, the cellular phone industry. Each industry, ideally, serves a market, which denotes the buyers or customers of the products and services offered by the industry. The function of strategy, which has a time horizon of years, is, in general, to set the long-term direction or position of the firm, for example define the technology, product, or service that the firm intends to develop, and determine the intended market for the product or service. The function of planning, which, in general, has a time horizon of sever al months to years, is to translate long-term strategy into medium-term activities, e.g., the portfolio of projects that the firm should execute the time-phased planning of these projects, and resource allocation. The function of operations, which has the time-horizon of days to months, is, in general, to translate medium-term planning activities into short-term product design, development, and delivery activities such as prototyping, manufacturing, product release, and shipment. No company can follow only one strategy. For example, Johnson & Johnson uses one marketing strategy for its common product such as BAND-AID & Johnson’s baby products; and different marketing strategy for its High Tech healthcare products such as Vicryl Plus, antibacterial surgical sutures or NeuFlex finger joint implants. There are several different types of strategy, including competitive strategy, technology strategy, product market strategy, financial strategy, and supply-chain strategy. For a tec hnology company to be successful all these strategies need to be aligned with each other, and with the business goals of the firm. Competitive strategy, is the highest level of strategy in the firm, and is intimately related to the mission and vision of the firm and also to setting the direction for all the other strategies in the firm. There are several schools of strategy formation: design, planning, positioning (Mintzberg, 1998). We focus on two important schools or frameworks for strategy-creation or â€Å"strategy-making† that are particularly important for high-technologycompanies. The first framework is the so-called â€Å"positioning† approach due to Porter (Porter, 1980), In this approach strategy is viewed as taking a generic position in a competitive market and which views strategy-making as an analytic process performed at the industry-market structural level (Porter, 1980) and the resulting dynamics between functional groups of players (e.g., competitors, suppliers) in the industry. The second framework analyzes strategy-making at the industry-level, company level, and intra-company level using evolutionary organization theory (Burgelman 2002). In this evolutionary organizational theory approach, each company is an organizational ecology within which strategy emerges through two basic mechanisms, external selection and internal selection. When companies start, because they are new and small ¸ the external selection mechanism dominates. As a company grows in size and becomes more established, internal selection plays an important role. Based on e volutionary organization theory, views strategy-making as an evolutionary process performed at three levels: industry-company level, company-level, and intra-company level. When these two frameworks are combined, an integrated approach to competitive strategy emerges: from industry-market level all the way to intra-company level. A unique aspect of creating competitive strategy for a company, and in particular, a high-technology company, is that the time-scales for the evolution of markets, industries, and technologies are, in general, much shorter (â€Å"faster†) compared to other industries. Therefore, the strategy frameworks of the positioning school needs to be augmented with functional maps (Clark and Wheelwright, 1993), which capture the evolution of the market, industry, and technology relevant to the company, and which can therefore be used to create strategy. The objectives of this chapter are as follows: 1. Describe the positioning framework for the creation of competitive strategy. 2. Provide an integrated competitive strategy process which is useful in developing competitive strategy in a technology company. 3. Demonstrate the application of the process of competitive strategy The objective of technology strategy (Clark and Wheelwright, 1993) is to guide the technology company in developing, acquiring, and applying technology for competitive advantage. An important part of technologystrategy is the definition of technical capabilities (e.g., advanced device design, rapid prototyping, automated assembly) that provide competitive advantage. The objective of product/market strategy is to clearly establish the following: define what differentiates the product from its competitors; identify market segments for the product, the customer needs of these segments, and the corresponding products (i.e., product lines) that will be offered to these segments; etc. An important outcome of produc t/market strategy is to define the product roadmap, including sales volume and price, necessary to realize the business goals. However, in the rapidly evolving industry and market landscape of high-technology, competitive strategy, in turn, depends on three levels of â€Å"strategy-making† as follows (Burgelman, 2002): 1. Industry-company level. At this level the firm must determine its strategic position, its core competencies, and its strategic action. 2. Company level: At this level strategy-making involves induced strategy and autonomous strategy. 3. Intra-company level: At this the internal level autonomous strategy is created. In successful companies, it is the tight coupling of strategy these three levels of strategy-making with the highest-level (i.e., industry-market level) competitive strategy that, results in successful strategic action where what the company actually does, e.g., the product lines it develops and markets, results in the realization of its business goals. It is also useful to mention two other strategies that are closely related to competitive strategy. Financial strategy in cludes issues such as capital budgeting and portfolio management, i.e., deciding on which technology and product development projects to fund in order to maximize the cumulative expected profit. Another important and related strategy is supply chain strategy (Chopra), which specifies the service, distribution, and operations functions, performed either in-house or outsourced, that the company should do well in order to successfully realize its intended competitive strategy. The â€Å"Positioning† Framework We first present a historical overview of the positioning or analytic school of strategy. Then, we develop the five forces framework (Porter, 1980) and the approach to creation of competitive strategy that is closely related to the five forces framework. We will use the personal computer industry to illustrate the approach. The positioning school of strategy which emerges from the competitive school is based on the following assumptions (Mintzberg, 1998): the marketplace is competitive strategy is a generic position in the marketplace; strategy formation is the selection of a generic position based on analysis. The underlying assumption is that industry or market structure drives position which drives the organizational structure of the firm. Matrices like the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) introduced two techniques: the growth-share matrix, and the experience curve. The growth-share matrix for a firm, developed in the early 1970s, is a 2Ãâ€"2 matrix with â€Å"growth† along one dimension, and â€Å"market share† along the other dimension. Each of these variables can take two values, â€Å"high† or â€Å"low† resulting in a 2Ãâ€"2 matrix. Therefore, the product portfolio of a firm can be decomposed into four combinations of growth and market share, each with a well defined meaning: (High growth, high market share) or â€Å"stars†, (high growth, low share) or â€Å"question marks†, (slow growth, high share) or â€Å"cash cows†, and (slow growth, low share) or â€Å"dogs†. The approach to strategy using this matrix would be to have a portfolio balanced mainly between cash cows (the stable business of the firm, e.g., â€Å"MAC† computers in the case of Apple) and stars (e.g., the iPod, in the case of Apple). The experience curve, developed in 1965-66, is based on the idea that accumula ted experience by a firm influences costs and prices. The claim â€Å"for the experience curve was that for each cumulative doubling of experience, total costs would decline roughly 20% to 30% because of economies of scale, organizational learning, and technical innovation† (Ghemawat, 1999). In 1971, the consulting firm McKinsey came up with the GE/McKinsey nine-block matrix called the Industry Attractiveness-Business Strength matrix (Ghemawat, 1999), which plotted business strength [High, Medium, Low] along one axis, and industry attractiveness [High, Medium, Low] along the other axis. The basic idea was to divide the company into â€Å"strategic business units (SBUs)†, and then make the appropriate strategic recommendations for each SBU depending on its â€Å"location† in the matrix. The Five Forces Framework and Competitive Strategy In this framework there are two high-level stages in the creation of competitive strategy, each stage corresponding to a high-level determinant of profitability mentioned in the previous section. The first stage is the assessment of the attractiveness of the industry in which a given company is embedded based on a structural analysis of the industry. In this stage, called the five forces framework, five forces that influence industry attractiveness are identified, as well as the factors (e.g., number of competitors, size of competitors, capital requirements) that determine the intensity of each force and therefore the cumulative intensity of the five forces. The purpose of the five forces framework is to relate the degree (or intensity) of competition in a given industry, as qualitatively measured by the combined strength (or intensity) of five forces, to the attractiveness of the industry, defined as its ability to sustain profitability. Based on the structural analysis, a particula r company may be in a very attractive industry (e.g., pharmaceuticals) or in an unattractive industry (e.g., steel). However, though a firm exists in an unattractive industry, it can still be highly profitable by choosing the proper competitive position within the industry, for example, e.g., a mini-mill such as Nucor in the steel industry in the nineteen-eighties (Ghemawat). The second stage of strategy creation addresses the competitive strategy available to the firm in order to achieve a strong competitive position. Ideally, a firm would want to be in a very attractive industry (e.g., pharmaceuticals) and have a strong competitive position (e.g., large pharmaceutical firms such as Smith Klein or Glaxo) within the industry. The five forces framework for the structural analysis of an industry is as follows. First, we define the following terms used in the structural analysis of the industry: industry, market, competitors, new entrants, substitutes, buyers, and sellers. The term ind ustry denotes (1) the manufacturers (or producers) and (2) the suppliers of a primary product or service, as well as (3) the manufacturers of alternative products and services that could serve as a substitute. For example, the (conventional) personal computer (PC) industry would include PC manufacturers like Dell and Apple, suppliers of semiconductor chips like Intel and Micron, suppliers ofdisc drives like Seagate, suppliers of software such as Microsoft, etc. Substitute products could be pen-based tablet PCs or small hand-held personal digital assistants (PDAs). In the five forces framework described below, manufacturers and producers will designated as (1) competitors in the industry if they already have established products, or (2) new-entrants if they are trying to enter the industry, or (3) substitutes, if they provide alternative (substitute) products. The term market denotes the buyers (or customers) of the product or service. For example, the market for PCs would include enterprises and individual consumers. The analytical process of strategy analysis and creation can be decomposed into the following five steps. 1. Create a map of the industry in which the technology company is em bedded. There are five key sets of players that constitute the business landscape: competitors, new entrants, substitutes, suppliers, and buyers. Identify key players (companies) for each industry. 2. Perform a five forces analysis of the industry structure. The five forces that influence the intensity of competition in a particular industry, and therefore the profitability of the firms within the industry: Force 1: the degree of rivalry (or competition) between the competitors; Force 2: the threat of new entrants (or the inverse of this force, the barrier to entry); Force 3: the threat of substitutes; Force 4: Buyer Power (to demand lower prices); Force 5: Supplier Power (to increase material prices). For each force, determine the key structural determinants which affect the intensity of the force. Porter and Ghemawat provide a detailed set of the determinants for each force, some of which are given in the table below. In the last column of this table we indicate plausible values o f each force for the PC industry in the nineteen nineties. Table 1 |Force |Key Determinants |Strength of the force | |Rivalry between competitors |Concentration (number) and size of |Medium to high | | |competitors | | | |Fixed costs/value added | | | |Brand indentity | | |Barrier to entry |Economies of scale |Medium to high | | |Brand identity | | | |Capital requirements | | |Threat of substitutes |Price/Performance of substitutes |Low to medium | | |Switching costs | | |Buyer Power |Buyer concentration | | | |Buyer size (volume) |Medium to high | | |Switching costs | | |Supplier Power |Supplier concentration |Low to medium | | |Supplier size (volume) | | | |Switching costs | | In theory, one would, qualitatively determine the strength of each force, as indicated in the third column of the above table, and then determine the cumulative or combined intensity of the five forces. The collective intensity or strength of the forces will determine the structural strength of the industry, as characterized by attractiveness, or the profit potential of the industry. The profit potential is measured by the long term return on invested capital (ROIC). If the collective strength of the forces is high, as in the steel industry, then the corresponding profit potential or attractiveness is low, and vice-versa. At one extreme of this analysis is the perfectly competitive free market, where there are numerous firms alloffering very similar products that cannot be differentiated (therefore, the force of rivalry is high), entry is free (therefore, the threat of both new entrants and substitutes is high), and bargaining power of both suppliers and buyers is low. Using the PC industry of the 1990’s as an example, the qualitative values of the forces shown in the last column of the above table would lead one to conclude that the cumulative strength of the five forces was medium to high, and therefore the attractiveness of the industry, i.e., its profitability, was medium to low. The PC industry in the nineteen-nineties would therefore not be attractive to new entrants, and in fact, in the early 2000s, HP’s computer business was unprofitable, and IBM sold its computer business to Lenovo. (It is important to note that HP’s unprofitability in computer business in the early 2000s cannot be attributed solely to industry attractiveness being low, but is also due to issues associated with its acquisition of the computer company Compaq.) 3. Select a competitive positioning strategy The basic premise of Porter and Hall was that for a firm to be successful (in a market) it had to compete based on one of two sources of competitive ad vantage: cost, i.e., by providing low cost products, or differentiation, i.e., by differentiating its products from its competitors with respect to quality and performance. Porter also proposed that a firm needs to select its strategic target: either offering a product to the entire market (â€Å"market-wide†), or offering a product for a particular market segment. Using these two dimensions (source of competitive advantage, and strategic target), Porter proposed the following three generic competitive strategies: 1. Cost Leadership: offering the lowest costs products to the entire market 2. Differentiated: offering highly unique products (as perceived by the customer) to the entire market 3. Focus: offering products which serve the needs of a niche segment of the market Porter’s claim is that for a company to be successful in the industry in which it operates it must choose between one of the three generic strategies: cost leadership, differentiated, and focus. If one uses the personal computer industry in the US during the 1990’s as an example, then the competitive strategies of the major players was as follows: Dell was the low-c ost leader; HP had a differentiated strategy with high-quality products; Apple had a focus strategy, targeting a narrow marketsegment of users who whom the user-experience (look, feel, and graphical user interfaces) were extremely important; and IBM had a mixed strategy. 4. Link competitive strategy to strategic planning (Ghemawat 1999) In order for a company to derive competitive advantage (or position) within its industry, the company needs to maximize, relative to it competitors, the difference between the buyer’s willingness to pay and the costs incurred in delivering the product to the buyer. Therefore, the next step in the competitive analysis is for the company to link competitive strategy to strategic planning by analyzing all the activities involved in differentiation and cost, and, to this end, a value chain (Porter, 1985) is an extremely important tool. According to Porter, â€Å"the value chain disaggregates a firm into its strategically relevant activities in order to understand the behavior of costs and the existing and potential sources of differentiation.† A three step process for using these activities, first to analyze costs, then to analyze buyer’s willingness to pay, and finally to explore different strategic planning options to maximize the difference between willingness to pay and cost, is developed in (Ghemawat, 1999). 5. Competitive strategy needs to evolve, especially in a high-technology company where markets, industries, and technologies, are changing relatively rapidly. A good example of the evolution of competitive strategy is IBM’s strategic decisions to evolve from a product-based company in the early nineties to a services-led company at the present time. In the early nineties, when the company was in trouble, IBM closely examined its business model and strategic direction, and decided to â €Å"stay whole† by moving its focus from products and hardware to solutions. One result of this strategic shift was the creation of IBM Global Services in the mid-nineties. By the late-nineties the company moved into e-business solutions, and extended this model in the 2000’s to â€Å"business-on-demand†. One result of these shifts in strategy was IBM’s decision to exit the Personal Computer Market by selling its PC business to Lenovo. Functional Maps A functional map essentially is a time-based evolutionary map of a key metric for an important organizational function, e.g., a product performance metric map for the engineering function in a technology firm, e.g., the well-known Moore’s Law in the semiconductor industry. Since the time-scales for the evolution of markets, industries and technologies for technology companies, especially â€Å"high-tech† companies, is short compared to other industries, the creation of the appropriate functional maps is critical to strategy formation in a technology company. As an example, in the relatively short span of four decades, information technology evolved from mainframes through workstations, servers and personal computers to internet-based and mobile computing. An important feature of our approach to developing competitive strategy in a technology firm is the integrated approach to strategy for a technology company, which relates company strategy to the company’s busin ess goals, business strategy, technology strategy, and product marketing strategy. Since, markets, industries, technologies, and products for a technology company are continually evolving, an important concept that plays a vital role in the creation of strategy, and, in particular, competitive strategy, is the functional map (Clark and Wheelwright, 1993). Here are some useful â€Å"dimensions† along which to create functional maps for strategy creation: a) Evolution of the industry in which the enterprise operates (changes in technology, customer needs, competitive landscape, etc.) b) Evolution of strategy – business, technology, and market – of the enterprise c) Evolution of technology (including manufacturing), product platforms, and product lines of the enterprise. The processes used for technology, product, and process development within the enterprise. d) Growth (or decline) of the enterprise with respect to of market share, revenues, costs, profits, etc. e) Organizational structure of the enterprise f) Key decisions made at different stages in the life of enterprise, and the drivers for these decisions g) The interconnections and relationships between all the above dimensions A multi-dimensional functional map for Intel is given in the next section. A very simple example of how functional maps can shape strategy is in the information technology industry. A functional map of the Information Technology Industry from the 1990s to the 2000s would reveal a shift from â€Å"products† to services†. The Services business in 2007-08 is approximately $750 billion, with IBM, whose share of this market is $54 billion, being the leader. HP, whose own share in the market is $17 billion seeing this shift in the industry and the need to build competitive strength, acquired EDS, whose share of the market is $21 billion. The combined share of HP and EDS would then be $38 billion, allowing it to compete more strongly with IBM. Another simple example of the use of a functional map in creating strategy is in the software industry. In the 2000s the software market is moving from a â€Å"packaged† product to online software, where individuals can get software that is mostly free, supported by advertising. Google is using its leadership on the Web to provide online softwa re that competes with Microsoft’s packaged software. Understanding this shift from packaged to online, and the corresponding change in the revenue model from direct sales (of product) to advertising, Microsoft is aggressively entering the online advertising business. Process for developing competitive strategy in a company If we combine the positioning framework for competitive strategy due to Porter, the evolutionary organization theoretic framework due to Burgelman, and augment these with the creation of relevant functional maps, then the resulting process of developing competitive strategy in a company can be decomposed into four stages, as follows. Stage 1: Company Analysis 1. Establish the business goals and objectives (ROI, %market share, revenue, and growth aspirations). 2. Determine the technology strategy and product market strategy for the company. 3. Define the overall development goals and objectives to align business goals, technology, and market strategies. 4. Develop the functional evolutionary maps of the markets and industry in which the company is embedded. Create functional maps (time-based evolutionary maps) for technology, product market, and manufacturing strategy of the firm. These maps will be useful in the process of assessing and creating competitive strategy. Stage 2: Industry Analysis 1. Perform the structural analysis of the industry in which the company is either an active competitor, or a new entrant, or a substitute. 2. Determine the existing competitive strategy of the company within the industry. 3. Determine the relationships between the company and the other players in the industry Stage 3: Assessment and Evolution of the company’s strategy within the relevant markets and industries 1. Using the functional maps of the overall markets and industry in which the company is embedded, as well as the company specific functional maps, assess the evolution of the company’s competitive strategy. 2. Decide on what the company’s future competitive strategy should be, and the corresponding technology strategy, product market strategy, and manufacturing strategy. Glossary Autonomous Strategy (also see induced strategy). Autonomous strategy refers to actions of individuals or small groups within the company that are outside the scope of current high-level corporate strategy. While autonomous strategy is constrained by the company’s distinctive (core) competencies, it usually (1) involves new competencies that are not the focus of the firm, and (2) results in so-called â€Å"disruptive technologies† that could change the strategic direction of the firm (Burgelman, 2002). Company Structure (vertical vs. horizontal). A vertical company is one which uses only its own proprietary technologies. A horizontal company is one which (usually because of the existence of open-standards) which does not solely rely on its own proprietary technologies, but usually uses technologies and products from other suppliers. In the computer industry, traditionally, Apple is an example of a vertical company, while Dell is an example of a horizontal company. The co mputer industry, itself, moved from a vertical structure to a horizontal structure in the 1980s (Ghemawhat, 1999). Corporate Strategy (official corporate strategy). Corporate strategy is top management’s view of the basis of the company’s success. It includes distinctive (core) competencies, product-market domains, and core values (Burgelman, 2002) Industry. The term industry, e.g., the consumer electronics industry,denotes (1) the manufacturers (or producers) and (2) the suppliers of a primary product or service, as well as (3) the manufacturers of alternative products and services that could serve as a substitute (Porter, 1980). Market. The term market denotes the buyers (or customers) of the product or service. Typically markets are segmented, for example, a two-dimensional segmentation based on the types of product (product segmentation) along one axis, and the types of customers (customer segmentation) along the other axis. The market, as represented by â€Å"Buyers† is an important part of the industry analysis in Porter’s framework. Once you’ve established the key assets and skills necessary to succeed in this business and have defined your distinct competitive advantage, you need to communicate the m in a strategic form that will attract market share as well as defend it. Competitive strategies usually fall into these five areas: 1. Product 2. Distribution 3. Pricing 4. Promotion 5. Advertising Many of the factors leading to the formation of a strategy should already have been highlighted in previous sections, specifically in marketing strategies. Strategies primarily revolve around establishing the point of entry in the product life cycle and an endurable competitive advantage. As we’ve already discussed, this involves defining the elements that will set your product or service apart from your competitors or strategic groups. You need to establish this competitive advantage clearly so the reader understands not only how you will accomplish your goals, but why your strategy will work. [pic] References Burgelman, R.A., â€Å"Strategy is Destiny†, The Free Press, New York, 2002. Chopra, Sunil, and Peter Meindl, â€Å"Supply Chain Management, Strategy, Planning, and Operations†, Third Edition, Pearson Prentice-Hall, 2007. Clark, K. B., and S.C. Wheelwright, Managing New Product and Process Development, Text and Cases, The Free Press, New York, 1993. Edwards, Cliff, â€Å"Intel†, Business Week, March 8, 2004, Pages 56-64. Ghemawat, Pankaj, Strategy and the Business Landscape, Text and Cases, Addison Wesley, 1999. Mintzberg, Henry and Bruce Ahlstrand, and Joseph Lampel, Strategy Safari, The Free Press, New York, 1998 Porter, Michael, Competitive Strategy, New York, The Free Press, 1980 Porter, Michael, Competitive Advantage, The Free Press, New York, 1985 ———————– Figure 1: A strategic view of the technology firm, showing different types of strategy Revenue ($), Growth (%), Etc. Purpose of the company Financial Strategy Competitive Strategy Market Strategy Technology Strategy Business Goals †¢ Vision †¢ Mission